Asian Journal of Education and Training Vol. 8, No. 1, 22-33, 2022 ISSN(E) 2519-5387 DOI: 10.20448/edu.v8i1.3806 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group The Relationship Between EFL Teachers’ Professional Identity and Professional Autonomy Ekru Dilek1 Betul Altas2 1Department of Foreign Languages, Istanbul Gelisim University, Turkey. ( Corresponding Author) Email: edilek@gelisim.edu.tr 2Institute of Social Sciences, Cag University, Turkey. Email: betulaltas@cag.edu.tr Abstract This study aims to identify 250 Turkish EFL teachers’ level of professional identity and professional autonomy. This study also aims to investigate whether the results differ by gender, the school in which they work, education level and work experience. Furthermore, the study aims to identify whether there is a significant relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and their professional autonomy. In this survey-based research, the results demonstrate that EFL teachers have a very high level of professional identity and a high level of professional autonomy, and the results differ by EFL teachers’ gender, school type and work experience. Results also reveal that there was a significant, positive and moderate relationship between professional identity and professional autonomy of EFL teachers. This study suggests that the freer EFL teachers feel to make decisions in their teaching and profession, the more they can define their identity in the teaching profession. Keywords: EFL teachers’ professional identity, EFL teachers’ professional autonomy, Professional development, Teacher education. Citation | Ekru Dilek; Betul Altas (2022). The Relationship Funding: This study received no specific financial support. Between EFL Teachers’ Professional Identity and Professional Authors’ Contributions: Both authors contributed equally to the conception Autonomy. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 8(1): 22-33. and design of the study. History: Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of Received: 2 February 2022 interest. Revised: 7 March 2022 Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, Accepted: 21 March 2022 accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the Published: 28 March 2022 study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons have been explained. Attribution 4.0 License Ethical: This study followed all ethical practices during writing. Publisher: Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Contents 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 2. Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 23 3. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 4. Findings ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 25 5. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 30 6. Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 31 References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 31 22 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2022, 8(1): 22-33 Contribution of this paper to the literature This study responds to needs of the field of teachers’ professional development and teacher education as EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy empower the continuity of teacher professional development and teacher engagement with EFL learner identity and autonomy in this globalized world. 1. Introduction In the recent research, scholars have tried to define the teacher professional identity but there is not a standard description of it (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009). Not only does the teacher identity influence how teachers exist in the classroom, but it also shapes their practices and educational approaches (Cross, 2006). Teacher identity is characterized as multiple, potent, individual and social (Akkerman & Meijer, 2011). In this sense, teachers’ cultural, individual and professional selves should be investigated to shed light on language teaching and learning (Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, & Johnson, 2005). According to Auxier, Hughes, and Kline (2003) the mixture of personal self and professional being which generates professional identity is also related to individual decisions, roles, values and morals. Current research studies have addressed the interrelation between teacher identity and teacher autonomy (Huang & Benson, 2013; Teng, 2017; Teng, 2019). Teacher autonomy means taking decisions about what to teach, and how to develop teaching practices and teacher professional development (Dikilitaş & Griffiths, 2017). McGrath (2000) sees teacher autonomy as an autonomous practice and being free from the control that is taken by others. Therefore, teachers’ professional autonomy is promoted by some strategies which also contribute to sustainability, peer collaboration, development of teaching skills, and professional reflection on teaching (Pineda & Frodden, 2008). Teacher autonomy enables teachers to take the responsibility of what to provide as a teaching practice and how to be in charge of the process in the field. Indeed, the level of teachers’ autonomy identifies the level of teachers’ efforts they put into facilitating learners’ autonomy (Smith, 2001). Thus, enhancing learner autonomy can be achieved by promoting autonomy of teachers (Aoki, 2002; Benson, 2011; Little, 1995; Sezen-Balcikanli, 2009; Smith, 2001; Vieira, 1999). In foreign language education field, EFL teachers construct a different identity and autonomy in the foreign language (Benson & Huang, 2008; Ortaçtepe, 2015). Herein, the significance of this study is about investigating the relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and teachers’ professional autonomy because foreign language constitutes a particular domain to question who the person is as an English language teacher and to what extent h/she can make choices for his/her teaching. Non-native English-speaking teachers have the status of L2 learners, L2 speakers and L2 teachers (Armour, 2004). In addition, teachers have an attitude towards making decisions about what/how to teach. EFL teachers also have a responsibility to teach the target language critically and reflectively with their free-will (Han, 2017). Thus, English language has the mediating role to form and define EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy in the field. Teacher autonomy and teacher identity are explained as mutually interrelated and reinforced notions (Chik, 2007; Korhonen, 2014; Reinders & Lazaro, 2011; Teng, 2019). Considering the interconnection between identity and autonomy, the construction of identity brings about development of autonomy while autonomous actions enrich the reformation of identity (Teng, 2019). Thus, teachers gain an autonomous perspective in the profession as long as they rebuild their identity (Huang, 2009). The concepts of identity and autonomy have been studied in the field of psychology, politics and sociology (Grimshaw, 1988; Robertson, 2003). And, the interrelation between identity and autonomy has been investigated in the field of education through qualitative and narrative studies (Chik, 2007; Derakhshan, Coombe, Arabmofrad, & Taghizadeh, 2020; Huang, 2011; Lier, 2007; Smith & Erdoğan, 2008). However, the relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy has not been examined through a quantitative study. Therefore, this study aims to find out EFL teachers’ level of professional identity and professional autonomy in Turkish education context, and it also aims to investigate whether the results differ by gender, the school in which EFL teachers work, the education level and their work experience. Lastly, this study investigates whether there is a significant relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and their professional autonomy. 2. Literature Review Professional identity means monitoring and socialization in the occupational context (Ibarra, 1999). Similarly, (Neary, 2014) says that professional identity is related to individuals’ own perception on their profession and the way of communication with colleagues. Pedagogical approaches which teachers use encourage them to question their own position and reveal teachers’ beliefs and values (Damon & Hart, 1992). Teachers’ knowledge and decisions/actions they take form their professional identity (Beijaard, Verloop, & Vermunt, 2000). Furthermore, teachers’ didactic principles are empirical models to ensure optimal teaching and learning (Thela, 1997). Teachers’ identity construction is characterized by the social context that has an impact on the description of the self and the teacher self (Lasky, 2005). In this social context, the teachers have their teacher education (Beijaard, Meijer, & Verloop, 2004). Teaching context incorporates school culture and interaction with others at work and this school culture involves the norms and the soul of education (Doyle, 1990). Moreover, the formation of teachers’ professional identity is reinforced through professional development (Mora, Trejo, & Roux, 2014). Learner autonomy in language learning is actualized by teachers’ guidance that helps students take responsibility in their educational life. Furthermore, internal and external drives, capability, managing time effectively and collaboration with colleagues form the teacher autonomy (Okay, 2018). Herein, teacher education programs involve curriculums to train professionally autonomous teachers, which are required to foster pre-service teachers’ professional autonomy and give them a chance to experience how to foster their own students’ autonomies (Little, 1995). In this regard, autonomy is accepted as the capacity for self-oriented actions in professional decisions and development (McGrath, 2000; Smith, 2003). Ability is defined as developing skills, knowledge and attitudes for autonomy by engaging with colleagues and learners (Smith, 2003). The combination of capacity and ability constitutes the concept of the capability to address teachers’ professional autonomy (Okay, 23 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2022, 8(1): 22-33 2018). External conditions, such as changes in teaching, power relations in the classroom, and regulations by government and institutions, may limit teachers’ decision making in teaching (Ramos, 2006). A study conducted by Huang (2011) demonstrates that the growth of future-teacher identity and autonomy are in relation to the agency. In their study, Smith and Erdoğan (2008) state that the participants formed a future- teacher identity during the educational period which is a driving force for teacher agency and subsequently promotes autonomy. Teachers’ professional identity and teacher professional autonomy have an impact on teachers’ success in the field. Investigating the relationship between teachers’ professional identity, teacher autonomy, and teacher success through structural Equation Modeling, the study conducted with Iranian EFL teachers shows that there is a significant and positive relationship among all three factors (Derakhshan et al., 2020). In an authoritative study, Teng (2019) addresses the relationship between teacher identity, autonomy, and agency, all of which are interconnected and influenced by the constraints of the teacher’s personal and professional life. As mentioned in the literature review, there aren’t any research studies that have investigated the relationship between Turkish EFL teachers’ professional identity and their professional autonomy. In this regard, the research questions are: RQ1. What is the level of EFL Teachers’: a. Professional identity? b. Professional autonomy? RQ2. Do the results differ by: a. Gender? b. The school in which EFL teachers work? c. Education level? d. Work experience? RQ3. Is there a meaningful relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy? 3. Methodology 3.1. Participants The participants comprised 250 English as foreign language teachers (EFL). All were Turkish. There were 170 female and 77 male participants working in private (N=128) and state (N=117) schools in Antalya, Turkey. A convenience sampling was used to select participants and the participation was entirely voluntary based on their consent. They were working at the secondary and high schools. These participants had bachelor’s (N=184) and postgraduate (N=69) degrees. Their work experience varied from less than seven years (N=87), between seven and 15 years (N=57), and more than 15 years (N=64). 3.2. Instruments In the study, two questionnaires were used: Teachers’ Professional Autonomy Questionnaire (TEPAQ) by Okay (2018) and Professional Identity Questionnaire by Beijaard et al. (2000). Additionally, one Demographic Information Form prepared by the researcher was used. 3.2.1. Demographic Information Form The form was used to investigate if the results of teachers’ professional identity (TPI) and teachers’ professional autonomy differ by gender, the school in which EFL teachers work as state and private, education level such as Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctorate as well as work experience of EFL teachers. 3.2.2. Professional Identity Questionnaire Professional Identity Questionnaire by Beijaard et al. (2000) is composed of 18 items with 4-point Likert scale. The questionnaire comprises three sub-scales: Subject-Matter Expert, Pedagogical Expert and Didactical Expert. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) by AMOS was employed to ensure the construct validity of the questionnaire. As a consequence of the CFA, a goodness-of-fit index was found as compatible (0MT15Y 0.0 41 Professional Identity 7-15Y 54 60.9 5.7 7-15Y>MT15Y MT15Y 62 57.4 7.0 LT7Y 81 20.0 3.3 4.7 19 0.0 10 7-15Y>M T15Y 0.0 46 Subject-Matter Expert 7-15Y 54 20.8 3.2 MT15Y 62 19.0 2.7 LT7Y 81 20.3 2.7 1.5 93 0.2 06 - Pedagogical Expert 7-15Y 54 20.7 2.1 MT15Y 62 19.9 2.8 LT7Y 81 19.5 2.6 3.4 50 0.0 34 LT7Y>M T15Y 0.0 34 Didactical Expert 7-15Y 54 19.3 2.1 MT15Y 62 18.4 2.8 Note: N=229. Results in Table 6 indicate that the difference between the scores of EFL Teachers’ Professional Identity is significant in terms of their work experience (MLT7Y=59.8, M7-15Y=60.9, MMT15Y=57.4, F=4.107, p<0.05). To determine between which groups there is a difference, the Post Hoc LSD test was carried out. Regarding the data analysis of Professional Identity, the scores of EFL teachers with LT7Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with MT15Y of work experience. Additionally, the scores of EFL teachers with 7- 15Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with MT15Y of work experience. There is a moderate effect of work experience on TPI determined by the eta squared score (η2=0.041). 27 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2022, 8(1): 22-33 Regarding the data results of the Subject-Matter Expert, there is a statistically significant difference between EFL teachers’ Subject-Matter Expert in terms of their work experience (MLT7Y=20.0, M7-15Y= 20.8, MMT15Y=19.0, F=4.719, p<0.05). As a consequence of the Post Hoc LSD test, data results of Subject-Matter Expert demonstrate that the scores of EFL teachers with 7-15Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with MT15Y of work experience. It was found that year of work experience has a small effect on the Subject-Matter based on the eta squared score (η2=0.046). In this study, no significant difference was detected between EFL teachers’ Pedagogical Expert in terms of their work experience (MLT7Y=20.3, M7-15Y=20.7, MMT15Y=19.9, F=1.593, p=0.206). A significant difference was found between EFL teachers’ Didactical Expert in terms of their work experience (MLT7Y=19.5, M7-15Y= 19.3, MMT15Y=19.4, F=3.450, p<0.05). As a result of the Post Hoc LSD test, data results of Didactical Expert show that the scores of EFL teachers with LT7Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with MT15Y of work experience. It was determined that there is a small effect of work experience on the didactical domain of TPI based on the eta squared score (η2=0.034). 4.2.5. Analysis of EFL Teachers’ Professional Autonomy according to Gender To find out whether EFL teachers’ professional autonomy differs by gender, Independent Sample T-Test was used in this analysis. As shown in Table 7, a significant difference exists between the total scores of EFL Teachers’ Professional Autonomy in terms of gender (Mfemale=96.3, Mmale=93.2, t=2.149, p<0.05). Table 7 presents the role of gender on participants’ internal drives, capability, collaborative attitudes with colleagues and time management as well as external motives. Table 7. Analysis of TPA in terms of gender. Scale Gender N M SD t p Female 158 96.3 10.0 2.1 49 0.0 33 Teachers' Professional autonomy Male 71 93.2 10.7 Female 158 39.1 4.9 2.540 0.012 Internal Drives & motives Male 71 37.3 5.2 Female 158 31.5 3.4 2.169 0.031 Capability Male 71 30.4 3.9 Female 158 12.9 2.1 1.591 0.113 Collaboration with colleagues Male 71 12.5 2.3 Female 158 6.6 1.8 -0.080 0.936 Time management Male 71 6.6 2.1 Female 158 6.2 2.0 -0.7 External Drives & motives 42 0.4 59 Male 71 6.4 2.3 Note: N=229. Female EFL teachers’ scores of Internal Drives and Motives (Mfemale=39.1, Mmale=37.3, t=2.540, p<0.05) and Capability (Mfemale=31.5, Mmale=30.4, t=2.169, p<0.05) are significantly higher than male EFL teachers. However, no significant difference was found between collaboration with colleagues (Mfemale=12.9, Mmale=12.5, t=1.591, p=0.113), time management skills (Mfemale=6.6, Mmale=6.6, t=-0.080, p=0.936), and External Drives and Motives according to gender (Mfemale=6.2, Mmale=6.4, t=-0.072, p=0.459). 4.2.6. Analysis of EFL Teachers’ Professional Autonomy according to School Type EFL Teachers Work In order to determine whether EFL teachers’ professional autonomy differs by the school type in which they work, Independent Sample T-Test was employed in the analysis. Table 8 shows that a significant difference exists between the total scores of EFL teachers’ TPA according to the school in which they work (Mprivate=97.6, Mstate=93.0, t=3.458, p<0.05). Table 8. Analysis of TPA in terms of the school in which EFL teachers work. Scale The school in which EFL teachers work N M SD t p Private 118 97.6 10.5 3.4 58 0.001 Teachers' professional autonomy State 111 93.0 9.6 Private 118 39.2 5.0 1.905 0.058 Internal Drives & Motives State 111 37.9 5.0 Private 118 31.7 3.6 2.4 98 0.0 13 Capability State 111 30.5 3.5 Private 118 13.1 2.3 2.547 0.012 Collaboration with Colleagues State 111 12.4 2.0 Private 118 6.9 2.1 2.164 0.031 Time Management State 111 6.4 1.5 Private 118 6.7 1.9 3.531 0.001 External Drives & Motives State 111 5.8 2.1 Note: N=229. However, the internal drives and motives of EFL teachers are not influenced by working in private or state schools (Mprivate=39.2, Mstate=37.9, t=1.905, p=0.058). In this analysis, there is a statistically significant difference between EFL teachers’ Capability (Mprivate=31.7, Mstate=30.5, t=2.498, p<0.05), Collaboration with Colleagues (Mprivate=13.1, Mstate=12.4, t=2.547, p<.05), Time Management (Mprivate=6.9, Mstate=6.4, t=2.164, p<0.05), and External Drives and Motives (Mprivate=6.7, Mstate=5.8, t=3.531, p<0.05) in terms of the school type. 28 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2022, 8(1): 22-33 4.2.7. Analysis of EFL Teachers’ Professional Autonomy according to Education Level To find out whether EFL teachers’ professional autonomy varies according to education level, Independent Sample T-Test was performed. As seen in Table 9 total scores of EFL teachers’ professional autonomy do not differ by having B.A. degree or postgraduate degree (Mbachelor’s=95.7, Mpostgraduate=94.3, t=0.916, p=0.361). Table 9. Analysis of TPA in terms of education level. Scale Education Level N M SD t p Bachelor’s 170 95.7 9.6 0.916 0.361 Teachers' Professional Autonomy Postgraduate 56 94.3 12.4 Bachelor’s 170 38.7 4.9 1.0 36 0.3 01 Internal Drives & Motives Postgraduate 56 37.9 5.6 Bachelor’s 170 31.2 3.2 1.0 64 0.288 Capability Postgraduate 56 30.7 4.4 Bachelor’s 170 12.9 2.1 1.486 0.139 Collaboration with Colleagues Postgraduate 56 12.4 2.3 Bachelor’s 170 6.6 1.8 1.0 37 0.301 Time Management Postgraduate 56 6.9 2.1 Bachelor’s 170 6.3 2.1 0.380 0.705 External Drives & Motives Postgraduate 56 6.4 2.1 Note: N=229. 4.2.8. Analysis of EFL Teachers’ Professional Autonomy according to Work Experience To determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between ELF teachers’ professional autonomy according to work experience, One-Way ANOVA was performed in this analysis. EFL teachers’ work experiences were grouped as less than seven years (LT7Y), 7-15 years (7-15Y) and more than 15 years (MT15Y). Based on the results in Table 10, the scores of EFL teachers’ Professional Autonomy significantly differ by their work experience (MLT7Y=97.6, M7-15Y=96.4, MMT15Y=92.1, F=7.870, p<0.05). Post Hoc LSD test indicates that the scores of EFL teachers with LT7Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with MT15Y of work experience. The scores of EFL teachers with 7-15Y of work experience are also significantly higher than the ones with MT15Y of work experience. The eta squared score was calculated as η2=0.075; therefore, the work experience variable has a moderate effect on TPA. No significant difference was found between EFL teachers’ Internal Drives and Motives in terms of work experience (F=2.012, p>0.05). However, a significant difference exists between EFL teachers’ Capability in terms of their work experience (MTH7Y=31.5, M7-15Y=31.9, MMT15Y=30.3, F=4.905, p<0.05). As a consequence of the Post Hoc LSD test, data results of Capability reveal that the scores of EFL teachers with LT7Y of work experience are higher than the scores of EFL teachers with MT15 years of work experience. Furthermore, the scores of EFL teachers with 7-15Y of work experience are significantly higher than the EFL teachers in work for MT15 years. The role of work experience in capability was calculated as small based on the eta squared score (η2=0.048). Table 10. Analysis of TPA in terms of work experience. Scale Work Experience N M SD F p Between Group Difference η2 LT7Y 81 97.6 9.2 7.870 0.001 LT7Y>MT15Y 0.075 Teachers' Professional 7-15Y 54 96.4 7.2 7-15Y>MT15Y Autonomy MT15Y 62 92.1 8.4 LT7Y 81 39.2 4.6 2.0 12 0.1 36 - 0.020 Internal Drives & 7-15Y 54 38.9 4.3 Motives MT15Y 62 37.7 4.6 LT7Y 81 31.5 3.1 4.9 05 0.0 08 LT7Y>MT15Y 0.0 48 Capability 7-15Y 54 31.9 2.2 7-15Y>MT15Y MT15Y 62 30.3 3.4 LT7Y 81 12.9 2.4 2.811 0.063 - 0.028 Collaboration with 7-15Y 54 13.3 1.5 Colleagues MT15Y 62 12.4 1.8 LT7Y 81 7.1 2.0 5.3 86 0.0 05 LT7Y>7-15Y 0.0 53 Time Management 7-15Y 54 6.5 1.7 LT7Y>MT15Y MT15Y 62 6.2 1.6 LT7Y 81 6.9 2.0 9.2 77 0.0 00 LT7Y>7-15Y 0.0 87 External Drives & 7-15Y 54 5.9 1.7 LTY7>MT15Y Motives MT15Y 62 5.6 2.2 Note: N=229. Data results also demonstrate that no significant difference was found between EFL teachers’ Collaboration with Colleagues according to their work experience (MLT7Y=12.9, M7-15Y=13.3, MMT15Y=12.4, F=2.811, p>0.05). However, there is a statistically significant difference between EFL teachers’ Time Management in terms of their work experiences (MLT7Y=7.1, M7-15Y=6.5, MMT15Y=6.2, F=5.386, p<0.05). As a result of the Post Hoc LSD test, data results of Time Management show that the scores of EFL teachers with LT7Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with 7-15Y and MT15Y of work experience. It was determined that work experience has a small effect on time management based on the eta squared score (η2=0.053). In addition, EFL teachers have a significant difference in their External Drives and Motives in terms of their work experience (MLT7Y=6.9, M7-15Y=5.9, MMT15Y=5.6, F=9.277, p<0.05). Based on the Post Hoc LSD test, data results of External Drives and Motives demonstrate that the scores of EFL teachers with LT7Y of work experience are significantly higher than the scores of EFL teachers with 7-15Y of work experience and EFL 29 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2022, 8(1): 22-33 teachers with MT15Y of work experience. In this analysis, the role of work experience in External Drives and Motives was calculated as moderate based on the eta squared score (η2=0.087). 4.3. Analysis of the Third Research Question In order to identify whether there is a meaningful relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy, a correlational analysis was used and thereby Spearman Correlation Test coefficients were computed in this analysis. Results in Table 11. indicate that there is a statistically significant, positive and moderate relationship between TPI and TPA (r=0.568, p<0.01). And, a significant, positive and moderate relationship exists between EFL teachers’ professional identity and Internal Drives & Motives (r=0.559, p<0.01), professional identity and Capability (r=0.623, p<0.01), and their professional identity and Collaboration with Colleagues (r=0.471, p<0.01). Table 11. Spearman correlation test of TPI and TPA. Scale Professional Identity 0.568** 0.559** 0.623** 0.471** -0.046 -0.057 Subject-Matter Expert 0.377** 0.371** 0.447** 0.351** -0.026 -0.113 Pedagogical Expert 0.526** 0.531** 0.579** 0.460** -0.126 -0.044 Didactical Expert 0.570** 0.533** 0.581** 0.416** 0.052 0.051 Note: **p<0.01; N=229. Additionally, there is a significant, positive and moderate relationship between Subject-Matter Expert and professional autonomy (r=0.377, p<0.01), Subject-Matter Expert and Internal Drives & Motives (r=0.371, p<0.01), Subject-Matter Expert and Capability (r=0.447, p<0.01). A significant, moderate and positive relationship also exists between Subject-Matter Expert and Collaboration with Colleagues (r=0.351, p<0.01). In addition, a significant, moderate and positive relationship was found between Pedagogical Expert and EFL teachers’ professional autonomy (r=0.526, p<0.01), between Pedagogical Expert and Internal Drives & Motives (r=0.531, p<0.01), Pedagogical Expert and Capability (r=0.579, p<0.01). There is also a significant, moderate and positive relationship between Pedagogical Expert and Collaboration with Colleagues (r=0.460, p<0.01). Moreover, a significant, moderate and positive relationship was found between Didactical Expert and professional autonomy (r=0.570, p<0.01), between Didactical Expert and Internal Drives & Motives (r=0.533, p<0.01), Didactical Expert and Capability (r=0.581, p<0.01), and Didactical Expert and Collaboration with Colleagues (r=0.416, p<0.01). As a consequence of the analysis, it can be concluded that there is not a significant relationship between the subscales of Professional Identity and Time Management, and between the subscales of Professional Identity and External Drives & Motives. 5. Results and Discussion This study was set out to find out the professional identity and autonomy levels of EFL teachers. Based on the results, EFL teachers perform a very high level of professional identity and particularly they have a very high level of subject-matter expertise based on their educational background. The reason is that the teacher’s professional identity formation is promoted by the pre-service education and experiences (Beijaard et al., 2004). Thus, the knowledge of subject-matter obtained through the previous education period encourages EFL teachers to continue their profession. Furthermore, EFL teachers with a very high level of subject-matter expertise view themselves as a good interaction model for the interaction between students and for the interaction students have in their social context. Results also reveal that EFL teachers are pedagogical experts in their profession at a very high level. And, they consider the climate of the classroom as a safe and respectful environment. According to Kansanen (2003) creating a peaceful classroom atmosphere encourages students to establish close relationships with their teachers. In light of findings, EFL teachers with a very high level of pedagogical expertise can also manifest their professional identity by creating a classroom environment with the sense of respect, safety and consideration. As a consequence of the high level of didactical expertise, these teachers can also diagnose and solve the problems in the learning process. Similarly, Klimstra (2013) says that identity formation is ensured by personal development. Therefore, personal development and identity formation of learners are provided by the teachers who have a high level of didactical expertise. Regarding the level of EFL teachers’ professional autonomy, the results show that they possess a high level of professional autonomy. As stated by Dam (1995) teachers’ autonomy is affected by their willingness and pleasure in the profession. In light of findings, EFL teachers are also internally motivated at a very high level as they enjoy developing themselves. Smith (2003) regards teachers as learners of their profession; thus, autonomous EFL teachers keep developing themselves in the teaching profession. Based on the results, EFL teachers also have a very high level of capability which addresses their abilities to benefit from profession-related materials, technological tools and which means expressing weaknesses and strengths as teachers. Teachers’ capability is a combination of ability and capacity which enable teachers to become autonomous in the professional context (Okay, 2018). Furthermore, collaboration in the professional context enables people to share work and experiences to make the work better (Campbell, Freedman, Boulter, & Kirkwood, 2003; Haapaniemi, Venalainen, Malin, & Palojoki, 2020). In this regard, EFL teachers have a very high level of collaborating skills. And, time management is another aspect of professional autonomy which EFL teachers perform at a moderate level. From Pacaol (2021) perspective, teachers may also be busy with assessment, talking to parents and preparing materials. Results reveal that EFL teachers find their workload heavy to have time for professional development. Lastly, external drives 30 © 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Teachers’ Professional Autonomy Internal Drives & Motives Capability Collaboration with Colleagues Time Management External Drives & Motives Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2022, 8(1): 22-33 such as better financial conditions and promotion have a moderate impact on EFL teachers’ professionally autonomous actions. The reason is that a higher pay and promotion affect teachers’ job satisfaction (Khaliq, 2018). Therefore, EFL teachers may continue their professional development activities to be paid more or get promoted. In this study, we also investigated whether the results of EFL teachers’ professional identity and autonomy differ by gender, education level, work experience, and the school type. Based on the findings, female EFL teachers have a higher level of professional identity and a higher sense of pedagogical and didactical expertise than male teachers. And, they perform a higher level of professional autonomy than male teachers in this study. Although EFL teachers’ collaborating with colleagues, time management and external drives do not differ by gender, results demonstrate that female EFL teachers are more internally driven than male EFL teachers, and view themselves as more capable than male teachers. In comparison to male teachers, female teachers seriously take into account the significance of higher inspiration, attraction and clear instruction that are also considered by their students (Bonds- Raacke & Raacke, 2007; Escardíbul & Mora, 2013; Krupnick, 1985). Considering the gender stereotypes in Turkish culture and the sociological context, Turkish people describe men as powerful whereas women’s stereotypes are structured under the personality traits such compassionate in the society and the media (Ayan, 2014; Berk, 2005). On the choice of a profession, the female might be perceived as an agent in the comfort of the house more than in a challenging work environment (Zencirkıran, 2016). However, female teachers have a higher academic achievement, higher intrinsic motivation and less burn-out in the field (Erten, 2010; Sak, 2018). In this study, both professional identity and professional autonomy levels of female teachers are higher; therefore, the explanation of these findings might be related to the females’ effort to change the social stereotypes through higher pedagogical and didactical expertise as well as higher internal drives and capability in their teaching profession where they try to manifest their potential and actualize their ideals. In addition, EFL teachers who work at private schools have a higher level of professional identity in the subject-matter, pedagogical and didactical expertise than the ones working in state schools. Results reveal that private school EFL teachers display a higher level of professional autonomy than the ones in state schools. Regarding EFL teachers’ professional autonomy, their capability, collaboration with colleagues, time management and external drives differ by the school type they work in. This might result from the extended hours of language lessons in private schools (Garipağaoğlu, 2015; Gürler, 2020). Thus, EFL teachers in private schools might have more time to be subjected to a variable teaching environment. Moreover, private schools are allowed to modify the curricula and materials by the Ministry of Education in Turkey while pre-determined materials must be used in state schools (Ministry of National Education (MoE), 2012, 2016). Therefore, private school EFL teachers can feel freer to take actions autonomously in their field. In light of findings, EFL teachers who have less than seven years of work experience and the ones with 7-15 years of experience possess a higher level of TPI than the ones with more than 15 years of work experience. At the same time, EFL teachers who are in their first seven years in profession view themselves as more expertized in subject-matter and didactical approaches. The results reveal that EFL teachers with less work experience might feel more competent with their fresh theoretical knowledge and enthusiasm. However, more experienced EFL teachers might lose their interest in describing their teacher being in years. Furthermore, EFL teachers with less than seven years of work experience perform a higher level of TPA than the ones who have been working for more than 15 years. And, EFL teachers with less work experience perform a higher level of capability in terms of professional autonomy than the ones in profession for more than 15 years. Herein, it can be said that more experienced teachers might falter in capability whereas EFL teachers with less than seven years of work experience are better at managing their time and are more externally motivated. Thus, EFL teachers with less work experience in the field tend to define their professional self autonomously. As a consequence of this study, we found that a significant, positive and moderate relationship exists between EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy. There are some studies that refer to the interrelation between identity and autonomy concepts (Benson, 2010; Huang., 2009; Teng, 2019) however, the relationship between professional identity and professional autonomy of teachers in this study was investigated in the EFL context. As EFL teachers possess professional identity, they can display autonomous actions in their profession. Accordingly, the freer EFL teachers feel to make decisions in their teaching and profession, the more they can define their identity in the profession. 6. Recommendations EFL teachers, the pre-service trainers, mentors and school managements as well as curriculum developers should consider the relationship between EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy so that the efficiency of teacher education in the pre-service and in-service periods can be enriched. For this reason, professional development activities in these periods should be encouraged to render teaching and learning more effective. To enhance EFL teachers’ professional identity and professional autonomy awareness, curriculum specialists can also collaborate with the teachers in further studies. In addition, the significant difference between EFL teachers’ professional identity and autonomy in terms of gender should also be investigated to highlight the sociological and cultural backgrounds in the Turkish context and different EFL contexts. In the implication of this study, perceptions of teacher trainers or school management should also be explored. 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